生物科技各类重要排名集锦
全球十大基因工程药物
十大生物技术上市公司
生物技术业内巨子
生物技术股富翁top 100排名（2000年度）
生物技术的十大资本运作案
100个常用生物技术术语解释（glossary）
本世纪生物技术重大进展
生物技术上下五千年
新世纪的好消息坏消息
全球十大基因工程药物
没有知识产权，没有比竞争对手在具体技术领域长期的工作积累，要开发出年销售额10亿美元的新药是很难想象的。机会面前人人平等，如果能积极利用人类基因组的成果并结合我国遗传病的特点，再有10多亿人口的潜在用药市场，我们总有一天能入全球排名前列。
| 10大生物技术药品 (依1998年全球销量,单位百万美元.)
|
依照不同的比较体系,十大生物 技术上市企业的排名是不同的.本文的比较标准是企业1999年的收入.若依照公司市值排名,一些基因组公司的名次会上升,这和投资者的吹捧炒作关系密切。
| 公司名称 | 1998 | 收入1999 | %hg | ?净收入1998 | 1999 | 每股收入($) 1998 | 1999 |
| 1. amgen inc. | 2,624.3 | 3,340.1 | 27.3 | 863.2 | 1,096.4 | 0.82 | 1.02 |
| 2. genentech inc. | 1,150.9 | 1,421.4 | 23.5 | 181.9 | (1,144.5) | 0.70 | -4.46 |
| 3. biogen inc. | 557.6 | 794.4 | 42.5 | 138.7 | 220.5 | 0.90 | 1.4 |
| 4. chiron corp. | 736.7 | 762.6 | 3.5 | 524.1 | 160.6 | 2.91 | 0.86 |
| 5. genzyme general corp. | 688.5 | 688.3 | (0.0) | 62.6 | 76.4 | 1.48 | 1.66 |
| 6. immunex corp. | 243.5 | 541.7 | 122.5 | 1.0 | 44.3 | 0.01 | 0.25 |
| 7. medimmune | 200.7 | 383.4 | 91.0 | 56.2 | 93.4 | 0.91 | 1.33 |
| 8. idexx laboratories | 319.9 | 356.2 | 11.3 | (15.2) | 32.6 | (0.40) | 0.82 |
| 9. nabi | 243.1 | 239.0 | (1.7) | (21.8) | (13.5) | (0.62) | -0.38 |
| 10. incyte genomics | 134.8 | 157.0 | 16.5 | 3.5 | (26.8) | 0.12 | -1.3 |
| source: company reports |
生物技术业内巨子
生物技术产业之父-robert swanson
生物技术界的比尔.盖茨- rathmann
善于制造资本神话的金融奇才-mark levin
最大的生物技术公司
genentech公司发展简史
生物技术产业之父-robert swanson
robert swanson是生物技术走出实验室和跨入商界的见证人。流传下来的故事是这样的：1976年，谋职于kleiner perkins 公司的时年29岁的风险投资家swanson耳闻革命性的发现---重组dna技术，他敏锐地捕捉到了这项基因工程关键技术的商业机会。年轻人拜访了技术发明人之一boyer，一番热情鼓动，无疑使科学家更明确了基因剪接技术的商业价值；于是就有了后来的genentech的诞生，swanson出任公司ceo，两年后（1978年），人类历史上第一个采用重组dna技术的基因工程产品胰岛素得以成功生产。
生物技术界的比尔.盖茨- rathmann
rathmann作为amgen的第一任首席执行官直至1990年退休,十年风雨为世界贡献了两个年销售十亿美元的基因工程药物,诞生了世界上最大的生物技术企业.回眸生物技术和信息技术近二十年的发展历程,会发现许多惊人的相似点,两个行业的领路人都是集群众智慧之大成者,善于团结高智商的技术人员为团队开发目标而奋斗,都有老道的营销经验,把对技术的洞察力转化为转化为商业运作的核心竞争力.最重要的是他们都成功了,乃至microsoft和amgen同时列入nasdaq在香港的五种交易股票。相比软件产业,基因工程产业把产品推向市场的周期更长,资金投入强度更大,这种挑战对应了rathmann的融资能力,生物技术的烧钱能力使其现金流量难以熬过六个月,而rathmann在保持融资的同时,从未采取上当铺的手法,让amgen度过了漫长的创业期.如今,rathmann又到icos公司二次创业,大概是英雄相惜,gates也在其中投入了数千万美元.
善于制造资本神话的金融奇才-mark levin
millennium pharmaceuticals公司1996年公开上市，在nasdaq市场一直火爆。上市时交易价为12美元，而今已跃至150多美元（2000-9-02），发行量300多万股，市值近5亿美元。该公司的业绩因其从事基因组方面工作而拥有大量的功能基因专利，备受生物技术投资者追捧。更离不开levin与大制药公司的结盟。目前估计给大公司结盟迎来20亿美元的进帐，令同行更为嫉妒的是这种签字活动同时维护了企业的权益。
最大的生物技术公司
安进(amgen)公司是全球最大的独立生物技术公司,诚如其英文名取意应用分子生物学,该公司一直致力于蛋白类基因工程药物的生产. amgen公司的发展是及其迅捷的, 其市值目前约700亿美元,排名世界500强之200多位,1992首次排入财富500强.amgen目前上市的三个药物为epogen (epoetin alfa), neupogen (filgrastim) 和infergen (interferon alfacon-1). epogen是amgen公司的第一个产品,1999年的销售额约18亿美元(neupogen约12亿美元),该药的利润原动力是1987年10月批准的基于dna序列的专利权(),对知识产权的保护其实是目前资源配置的最佳方式,是赢得國家竞争力的根本保证。类似的例子还有微软,在此不做赘述.1999年amgen的研发费用为823百万美元. 公司1980年由几个科学家和风险投资家创立,1981年运作后得到了1900万美元风险资金的支持,ceo为rathmann. 1983,1986,1987年先后在nasdq发行股票.
生物技术股富翁top 100排名（2000年度）
据<<基因工程新闻>>报道,截止2000年3月1日,排名前100名的持生物技术股的富翁股票面值72.3亿美元,1999年的该统计为14.1亿美元,1998年为17.6亿美元,1997年为19.6亿美元,1996年为20.5亿美元.
首富仍为 william k. bowes,其持有股票组合为 amgen, xoma和 lynx,面值约68.6亿美元. 有意思的是,这100名持股人也存在高学历逐年上升的趋势.拥有博士学位的富翁从95年到2000年依次为64,63,72,69,89,96。这种文凭现象可引发对股市多层面的思索。
本年度持生物技术股富翁排行帮如下表所示：
| 姓名 | 公司 | 数量 |
| william k. bowes, jr. | amgen, xoma, lynx | $686,398,793 |
| phillip frost, md | ivax | $642,434,166 |
| david m. goldenberg, md, scd | immunomedics | $415,064,144 |
| lindsay a. rosenwald, md | avax, biocryst, genta, interneuron, neose | $336,387,890 |
| gordon binder | amgen | $308,447,899 |
| william a. haseltine, phd | human genome sciences | $284,014,797 |
| william h. gates iii | icos | $281,135,118 |
| laurence jay korn, phd | protein design labs | $215,209,878 |
| samuel waksal, phd | imclone systems | $180,862,974 |
| william j. rutter, phd | chiron | $176,554,631 |
| j. craig venter, phd | pe corporation (celera and biosystems) | $167,968,454 |
| elazar rabbani, phd | enzo biochem | $149,897,868 |
| franklin h. top, jr., md | medimmune | $144,179,364 |
| robert d. shapiro | monsanto | $141,654,092 |
| orrie m. friedman, phd | genome therapeutics | $124,717,648 |
| john w. holaday, phd | entremed | $123,083,400 |
| george b. rathman, phd | icos | $119,277,145 |
| paul j. maddon, md, phd | progenics pharmaceuticals | $115,592,980 |
| leonard s. schleifer, md, phd | regeneron pharmaceuticals | $110,782,202 |
| phillip a.sharp, phd | biogen | $100,817,708 |
| andrew e. senyei, md | corixa | $100,462,478 |
| raju s. kucherlapati, phd | cell genesys, millennium | $100,003,576 |
| frank d. lee, phd | millennium pharmaceuticals | $97,505,455 |
| radoje t. drmanac, phd | hyseq | $95,307,993 |
| randal w. scott, phd | incyte pharmaceuticals | $94,984,976 |
| joshua s. boger, phd | vertex, millennium | $87,180,604 |
| robert i. levy, phd | immunex | $87,050,670 |
| william h. rastetter, phd | idec pharmaceuticals | $85,283,672 |
| mark h. skolnick, phd | myriad genetics | $81,004,965 |
| endre a. balazs, md | biomatrix | $75,134,309 |
| paul schimmel, phd | alkermes, repligen | $69,900,058 |
| leonard bell, md | alexion pharmaceuticals | $67,434,675 |
| ronald j. brenner, phd | cytogen | $61,483,158 |
| milan panic | icn pharmaceuticals | $61,159,228 |
| craig a. rosen, phd | human genome sciences | $59,990,607 |
| frank baldino, jr., phd | cephalon, viropharma | $52,998,372 |
| michael l. riordan, md | gilead science | $50,489,868 |
| p. roy vagelos, md | regeneron pharmaceuticals | $49,323,327 |
| richard f. selden, md, phd | transkaryotic therapies | $45,888,887 |
| louis r. bucalo, md | titan pharmaceuticals | $45,810,672 |
| claude h. nash, phd | viropharma | $45,524,625 |
| alexander rich, md | alkermes, repligen | $44,349,475 |
| philip j. whitcome, phd | avigen | $43,289,659 |
| sol j. barer, phd | celgene | $41,551,098 |
| stephen a. sherwin, md | cell genesys | $40,750,121 |
| john s. patton, phd | inhale therapeutics | $39,029,848 |
| alejandro zaffaroni, phd | alza | $36,411,645 |
| anthony b. evnin, md | triangle pharmaceuticals | $32,678,686 |
| e. rolland dickson, phd | neorx | $26,671,190 |
| walter gilbert, phd | myriad genetics | $25,913,404 |
| john c. martin, phd | gilead sciences | $25,193,034 |
| steven gillis, phd | corixa | $23,209,673 |
| edward e. penhoet, phd | chiron | $22,986,273 |
| solomon h. snyder, md | guilford pharmaceuticals | $22,435,242 |
| john monahan, phd | avigen | $21,838,192 |
| stanley crooke, phd, md | isis | $21,320,432 |
| stephen r. squinto, phd | alexion pharmaceuticals | $20,841,975 |
| joseph a. mollica, phd | pharmacopeia | $20,567,319 |
| charles j. homcy, md | cor therapeutics | $19,850,269 |
| j. leighton read, md | aviron | $19,732,596 |
| edward r.gubish, phd | entremed | $18,092,250 |
| joseph c. hogan, jr., phd | arqule | $17,959,961 |
| john f. tallman, phd | neurogen | $16,393,986 |
| ronald w. pero, phd | oxigene | $16,042,500 |
| daniel j. levitt, md, phd | protein design labs | $15,505,142 |
| charles e. bugg, phd | biocryst pharmaceuticals | $14,793,948 |
| david a. scheinberg, md, phd | progenics pharmaceuticals | $14,469,995 |
| gail k. naughton, phd | advanced tissue sciences | $13,695,000 |
| stephen a. roth, phd | neose technologies | $13,565,057 |
| calvin b. harley, phd | geron | $13,050,525 |
| philip leder, md | genome therapeutics inc | $12,801,036 |
| james c. blair, phd | amylin pharmaceuticals | $12,097,472 |
| gillian e. francis, dsc | valentis | $11,406,506 |
| richard a. f. dixon, phd | texas biotechnology | $11,128,443 |
| thomas h. fraser, phd | diacrin | $11,074,567 |
| kenneth g. kasses, phd | genta | $11,006,606 |
| carl c. icahn | cadus pharmaceutical | $10,943,452 |
| paul a. bartlett, phd | pharmacopeia | $10,351,836 |
| alan c. sartorelli, phd | vion pharmaceuticals | $10,322,017 |
| david t. rovee, phd | organogenesis | $9,491,163 |
| arthur p. bollon, phd | cytoclonal pharmaceuticals | $9,423,620 |
| david h. katz, md | avanir pharmaceuticals | $9,091,099 |
| sterling k. ainsworth, phd | napro biotherapeutics | $8,755,456 |
| colin goddard, phd | osi pharmaceuticals | $8,601,079 |
| robert j. israel, md | progenics pharmaceuticals | $8,026,703 |
| stelios b. papadopoulos, phd | diacrin | $3,662,600 |
| kathleen p. mullinix, phd | synaptic pharmaceutical | $3,377,692 |
| sheldon s. hendler, md, phd | vyrex | $3,252,781 |
| john m. lambert, phd | immunogen | $2,948,893 |
| dale g. ando, md | cell genesys inc | $2,898,679 |
| richard a. kenley, phd | amylin pharmaceuticals | $2,668,286 |
| james r. rusche, phd | repligen | $2,651,480 |
| melvin perelman, phd | inhale therapeutics | $2,569,849 |
| robert c. bishop, phd | autoimmune | $2,315,021 |
| william p. tew, phd | chesapeake biological labs | $2,286,272 |
| richard p. schwarz, phd | texas biotechnology | $2,280,441 |
| eugene a. bauer, md | connetics | $2,254,079 |
| stanislaw m. mikulski, md | alfacell | $2,233,080 |
| marc e. lanser, md | boston life sciences | $2,171,157 |
| kurt c. gunter, md | transkaryotic therapies | $2,169,591 |
任何产业的发展都离不开资本、技术、人才和环境四大因素的协调和发展，生物技术的发展也不例外。本处列出了生物技术的十大资本运作案。
| 编号 | 当事方 | 时间 | 方式 | 交易额$m | 期权 | 专利授权许可 | 项目简介 |
| 1. | lilly / genentech | 8/78-7/80 | d,l | 8% | recombinant insulin | ||
| 2. | kirin brewery / amgen | 5/84-3/89 | jv | $44.5 | 5% | epo, g-csf & gm-csf jv | |
| 3. | glaxo / biochem pharma | 1/90-3/94 | e,jv,l,r | $63.0 | $47.0 | 15% | bch-189 aids; antracycline cancer; 3tc |
| 4. | hoffmann-la roche / genentech | 9/90 | acq,mrg | $2014.0 | 60% acq. & governance agreement | ||
| hoffmann-la roche / genentech | 6/95-10/95 | d,l,o,s | $0.0 | 22% | governance & in-licensed products ex-us | ||
| 5. | allergan / ligand pharmaceuticals | 6/92 | e,jv | $44.0 | $24.0 | 50% | screening via retinoid receptors |
| allergan / ligand pharmaceuticals | 6/95-9/97 | ast,e,jv,o,ter,w | $90.0 | $6.0 | 50% | allergan/ligand jv based on retinoids | |
| 6. | lilly / centocor | 7/92-6/96 | di,e,o | $100.0 | $50.0 | centoxin & centorx | |
| 7. | smithkline / human genome sciences | 5/93-6/96 | col,e | $125.0 | $37.0 | 20% | gene sequencing for drugs |
| 8 | ciba-geigy / chiron | 11/94-7/96 | acq,col,e,lo,o | $2100.0 | $1,388.0 | 50% acquisition & governance | |
| 9. | monsanto / millennium | 10/97 | jv | $343.0 | genomics for agricultural products | ||
| 10. | bayer / millennium | 9/98 | e,l,r | $465.0 | $96.6 | small molecules from genomics |
100个常用生物技术术语解释（glossary）
this glossary contains about 100 commonly used biotechnology terms.
agrobacterium tumefaciens
a common soil bacterium that causes crown gall disease by transferring some of its dna to the plant host. scientists alter agrobacterium so that it no longer causes the disease but is still able to transfer dna. they then use this altered agrobacterium to ferry desirable genes into plants.
amino acid
the fundamental building blocks of a protein molecule. a protein is composed of a chain of hundreds or thousands of amino acids. our bodies can synthesize most of the amino acids. however, eight amino acids (called essential amino acids) must be obtained from food.
antibody
a protein produced in response to the presence of a specific antigen.
antigen
a foreign substance that elicits the production of antibodies.
anti-sense technology
the use of an rna molecule to block gene expression by interfering with protein production. this technique is used commercially in tomatoes to slow ripening for better shipping and longer shelf life
assay
a method for determining the presence or quantity of a component
b lymphocytes (b cells) .
a type of cell that produces antibodies.
bacillus thuringiensis
a naturally occurring bacterium with pesticidal properties. bacillus thuringiensis produces a protein (bt toxin) that is toxic only to certain insect larvae that consume it.
bacteriophage
a virus that infects bacteria. also called a phage.
bioassay
a method of determining the effect of a compound by quantifying its effect on living organisms or their component parts.
biocatalyst
an enzyme that activates or speeds up a chemical reaction.
biological control
the use of one organism to control the population size of another organism.
biological molecules
large, complex molecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates, that are produced only by living organisms. biological molecules are often referred to as macromolecules or biopolymers.
bioprocessing
a technique in which microorganisms, living cells, or their components are used to produce a desired end product.
bioreactor
a container used for bioprocessing.
bioremediation
the use of organisms, usually microorganisms, to break down pollutants in soil, air or groundwater.
biosensor technology
the use of cells or biological molecules in an electronic system to detect specific substances. consists of a biological sensing agent coupled with a microelectronic circuit.
biosynthesis
production of a chemical by a living organism.
biotechnology
(ancient definition:) the use of living organisms to solve problems and make useful products. (modern definition:) a collection of technologies that use living cells and/or biological molecules to solve problems and make useful products.
callus
a cluster of undifferentiated plant cells that have the capacity to regenerate a whole plant in some species.
catalyst
a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction, but is not itself changed during the reaction.
cell
the smallest structural unit of living organisms that is able to grow and reproduce independently.
cell culture
a technique for growing cells under laboratory conditions.
cell fusion
the formation of a hybrid cell produced by fusing two different cells.
chromosome
components in a cell that contain genetic information. each chromosome contains numerous genes. chromosomes occur in pairs: one obtained from the mother; the other from the father. chromosomes of different pairs are often visibly different from each other (see also dna).
clone
a cell or collection of cells containing identical genetic material. clones are produced from a single parent cell.
culture
to grow living organisms in a prepared medium or media.
culture medium
a nutrient system for artificially growing bacteria or other cells.
dna (deoxyribonucleic acid)
the chemical molecule that is the basic genetic material found in all cells. dna is inherited. because dna is a very long, thin molecule, it is packaged into units called chromosomes. dna belongs to a class of biological molecules called nucleic acids.
dna fingerprinting (or dna typing)
a technique for identifying individual organisms based upon the uniqueness of their dna pattern. the technique has applications in forensics, paternity testing, anthropology, conservation biology and ecological research.
dna ligase
an enzyme that rejoins cut pieces of dna.
dna probe
a molecule that has been labeled with a radioactive isotope, dye or enzyme and is used to locate a particular portion of a dna molecule.
dna sequence
the order of nucleotide bases in the dna molecule.
double helix
a term used to describe the configuration of a dna molecule. the helix consists of two spiraling strands of nucleotides held together with chemical bonds.
e. coli (escherichia coli)
a bacterium commonly found in the intestinal tracts of most vertebrates. it is used extensively in recombinant dna research because it has been genetically well characterized.
enzyme
a protein that accelerates the rate of chemical reactions. enzymes are catalysts that promote reactions repeatedly, without being damaged by the reactions.
eukaryote
an organism whose genetic material is located within a nucleus. yeast, fungi, protozoans, plants and animals are eukaryotes.
expression
the physical manifestation of the information contained in a gene.
fermentation
a process of growing microorganisms to produce various chemical or pharmaceutical compounds. microbes are usually incubated under specific conditions in large tanks called fermenters. fermentation is a specific type of bioprocessing.
gene
a unit of hereditary information. a gene is a section of a dna molecule that specifies the production of a particular protein. more on genes.
gene amplification
the increase, within a cell, of the number of copies of a given gene.
gene mapping
determining the relative locations of genes on a chromosome.
genetic code
the way genetic information is stored in living organisms.
genetic engineering
the technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a dna molecule in order to change the information it contains. by changing this information, genetic engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is capable of producing.
genome
the total hereditary material of a cell.
genotype
the specific genetic makeup of an organism, as contrasted with the actual characteristics of an organism (see phenotype).
hybridization
production of offspring, or hybrids, from genetically dissimilar parents. in selective breeding, it usually refers to the offspring of two different species.
hybridoma
a type of hybrid cell produced by fusing a normal cell with a tumor cell. when lymphocytes (antibody-producing cells) are fused to the tumor cells, the resulting hybridomas produce antibodies and maintain rapid, sustained growth, producing large amounts of an antibody. hybridomas are the source of monoclonal antibodies.
immunoassay
a technique for identifying substances, based on the use of antibodies.
immunotoxin
the coupling of an antibody and a molecule that is toxic to the cell.
in vitro
performed in a test tube or other laboratory apparatus.
in vitro selection
selection at the cellular or callus stage of individuals possessing certain traits, such as herbicide resistance.
in vivo
in the living organism.
interferon
a protein produced naturally by the cells of our bodies. it increases the resistance of surrounding cells to attacks by viruses. one type of interferon, alpha interferon, is effective against certain types of cancer. others may prove effective in treating autoimmune diseases.
interleukin
a protein produced naturally by our bodies to stimulate our immune systems. there are at least 18 known kinds of interleukins.
leukocyte
a white blood cell, an important component of the body’s immune system.
lymphocyte
a type of leukocyte found in the blood, lymph nodes and certain organs. lymphocytes are continuously made in the bone marrow (see also b lymphocytes and t lymphocytes).
macrophage
a type of white blood cell that ingests dead tissue and cells and is involved in producing interleukin 1.
marker gene
genes that identify which plants have been successfully transformed.
molecular genetics
the study of the molecular structure and function of genes.
monoclonal antibody
highly specific, purified antibody that is derived from only one clone of cells and recognizes only one antigen.
multigenic
many genes are involved in the expression of a trait.
mutagen
a substance that induces mutations.
mutant
a cell microorganism that manifests new characteristics due to a change in its genetic material.
mutation
a change in the genetic information.
nucleic acid
a biological molecule composed of a long chain of nucleotides. dna is made of thousands of four different nucleotides repeated randomly.
nucleotide
a compound made up of these three components: a sugar, phosphate and a nitrogen-containing base. found as individual molecules (e.g., atp, the energy molecule), or as many nucleotides linked together in a chain (nucleic acid such as dna).
oncogene
a gene thought to be capable of producing cancer.
oncology
study of tumors.
phenotype
the observable characteristics of an organism as opposed to the set of genes it possesses (its genotype).the phenotype that an organism manifests is a result of both genetic and environmental factors. therefore, organisms with the same genotype may display different phenotypes due to environmental factors. conversely, organisms with the same phenotypes may have different genotypes.
plasmid
a small, circular piece of dna found outside the chromosome in bacteria. plasmids are the principal tools for inserting new genetic information into microorganisms or plants.
polymerase chain reaction (pcr)
a technique for quickly making many copies of a specific segment of dna.
prokaryotes
organisms whose genetic material is not enclosed by a nucleus. the most common examples are bacteria.
protein
a complex biological molecule composed of a chain of units called amino acids. proteins have many different functions: structure(collagen); movement (actin and myosin); catalysis (enzymes); transport (hemoglobin); regulation of cellular processes (insulin); and response to the stimuli (receptor proteins on surface of all cells).the information for making proteins is stored in the sequence of nucleotides in the dna molecule.
protein engineering
a technique used in the production of proteins with new or artificial amino acid sequences.
protoplast
a plant or bacterial cell that has had its cell wall removed.
recombinant dna
dna that is formed through combining dna from two different sources. humans direct the formation of recombinant dna through selective breeding and genetic engineering.
recombinant dna (rdna) technology
the laboratory manipulation of dna in which dna, or fragments of dna from different sources, are cut and recombined using enzymes. this recombinant dna is then inserted into a living organism. rdna technology is usually used synonymously with genetic engineering.
recombination
the formation of new combinations of genes. recombination occurs naturally in plants and animals during the production of sex cells (sperm, eggs, pollen) and their subsequent joining in fertilization. in microbes, genetic material is recombined naturally during conjugation.
regeneration
the process of growing an entire plant from a single cell or group of cells.
restriction enzymes
bacterial enzymes that cleave dna at very specific locations.
restriction map
a diagram that shows restriction sites (i.e., where a restriction enzyme cleaves dna) in relation to one another.
rna (ribonucleic acid)
like dna, a type of nucleic acid. there are three major types: messenger rna, transfer rna, and ribosomal rna. all are involved in the synthesis of proteins from the information contained in the dna molecule.
tissue culture
a procedure for growing or cloning enough cells through in vitro techniques to make a tissue.
t lymphocytes (t cells)
white blood cells, produced in the bone marrow, that aid b cells in making antibodies to fight bacterial infections. they also are instrumental in rejection of foreign tissue, and may be important in the body’s defense against cancer.
transformation
a change in the genetic structure of an organism as a result of the uptake and incorporation of foreign dna.
transposon
a mobile genetic element that can move from one location in the gene and reinsert at another site.
vector
the agent used to carry new dna into a cell. viruses or plasmids are often used as vectors.
virus
an infectious agent composed of a single type of nucleic acid, dna or rna, enclosed in a coat of protein. viruses can multiply only within living cells.
20世纪生物技术重大进展
| 1866 | austrian botanist and monk gregor mendel proposes basic laws of heredity based on cross-breeding experiments with pea plants,his findings,published in a local natural -history journal,are largely ignored for more than 30 years. |
| 1882 | while examining salamander larvae under a microscope,german embryologist walther fleming spots tiny threads within the cells’nuclei that appear to be dividing.the threads will later turn out to be chromosomes. |
| 1883 | francis galton, a cousin of charles darwin’s and an advocate of improving the human race by means of selective breeding, coins the word eugenics. |
| 1910 | u.s. biologist thomas hunt morgan’s experiments with fruit flies reveal that some genetically determined traits are sex linked. his work also confirms that the genes determing these traits reside on chromosomes. |
| 1926 | u.s. biologist hermann muller discovers that x rays can cause genetic mutations in fruit flies. |
| 1932 | publication of aldous huxley’s novel brave new world,which presents a dysttopian view of genetic engineering |
| 1944 | working with pneumococcus bacteria,oswald avery,colin macleod and maclyn mccarty prove that dna,not protein ,is the hereditary material in most living organisms. |
| 1950 | british physician douglas bevis describes how amniocentesis can be used to test fetuses for rh-factor incompatibility.the prenatal test will later be used to screen for a battery of genetic disorders. |
| 1953 | american biochemist james watson and british biophysicist francis crick announce their discovery of the double-helix structure of dna,the molecule that carries the genetic code. |
| 1964 | stanford geneticist charles yanofsky and colleagues prove that the sequence of nucleotides in dna corresponds exactly to the sequence of amino acids in proteins |
| 1969 | a harvard medical school team isolates the first gene: a snippet of bacterial dna that plays a role in the metabolism of sugar. |
| 1970 | university of wisconcin researchers synthesize a gene from scratch. |
| 1973 | american biochemists stanley cohen and herbert boyer insert a gene from an african clawed toad into bacterial dna,where it begins to work.their experiment marks the beginning of genetic engineering. |
| 1975 | scientists at an international meeting in asilomar,california,calls for guidelines for recombinant-dna research. |
| 1976 | the first genetic engineering company,genentech,is founded in south san francisco. |
| 1978 | scientists from genentech and a duarte,california,medical center clone the gene for human insulin. |
| 1980 | reseachers successfully introduce a human gene - one that codes for the protein interferon - into a bacerium. |
| 1980 | martin cline and co-workers creat a transgenic mouse,transferring functional genes from one animal into another. |
| 1982 | the u.s. fda approves the first genetically engineered drugs, a form of human insulin produced by bacteria. |
| 1983 | while driving along a california highway,kary mullis,a biochemist at cetus corp.,conceives of the so-called polymerase chain reaction, or pcr,technique that will enable scientists to rapidly reproduce tiny snippets of dna. |
| 1984 | alec jeffreys,of britain’s university of leicester,develops genetic fingerprinting which uses unique sequences of dna to identify individuals. |
| 1985 | first use of genetic fingerprinting in a criminal investigation. |
| 1986 | the fda approves the first genetically engineered vaccine for humans,for hepatitis b. |
| 1988 | harvard university is awarded the first patent for a genetically altered animal,a mouse that is highly susceptible to breast cancer. |
| 1989 | creation of the national center for human genome research,headed by james watson,which will oversee the $3billion u.s. effort to map and sequence all human dna by 2005 |
| 1990 | formal launch of the international human genome project. |
| 1990 | american geneticist w.french anderson performs the first gene therapy on a four-year-old girl with an immune system disorder called ada deficiency. |
| 1991 | analyzing chromosomes from women in cancer-prone families, mary-claire king,of the university of california,berkeley,finds evidence that a gene on chromosome 17 causes the inherited form of breast cancer and also increases the risk of ovarian cancer. |
| 1992 | the u.s. army begins collecting blood and tissue samples from all new recruits as part of genetic dog tagprogram aimed at better identification of soldiers killed in combat. |
| 1993 | after analyzing the family trees of gay men and the dna of pairs of homosexual brothers,biochemists at the u.s. national cancer institute report that at least one gene related to homosexuality resides on the x chromosome,which is inherited from the mother. |
| 1995 | researchers at duke university medical center in durham,north carolina report that they have transplanted hearts from genetically altered pigs into baboons.all three transgenic hearts survived at least a few hours, proving that cross-species operations are possible. |
| 1997 | researchers at scotland’s roslin institute,led by embryologist lan wilmut,report that they have cloned a sheep - named dolly- from the cell of an adult ewe. |
| 1998 | dna analyses of semen stains on a dress worn by monica lewinsky match dna from a blood sample taken from u.s. president bill clinton |
| 1998 | scientists at japan’s kinki university clone eight identical calves using cells taken from a single adult cow. |
| 2003 | the human genome project’s current target date for sequencing all human dna. |
生物技术上下五千年
本文以编年体的方式罗列了生物技术上下五千年的发展简史,由于发展历史和发展逻辑的内在统一性,我们似乎又把握住了人类先知者对生物技术探索的有浅及深的思想历程。公元100年前的三大贡献中华民族占据了两项，这使我们感到欣慰的同时也感受到了再不能睡大觉的使命感。
| 1750 b.c. | the sumerians brew beer. | ||
| 500 b.c. | the chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils. | ||
| a.d. 100 | powdered chrysanthemum is used in china as an insecticide. | ||
| 1590 | the microscope is invented by janssen. | ||
| 1663 | cells are first described by hooke. | ||
| 1675 | leeuwenhoek discovers bacteria. | ||
| 1797 | jenner inoculates a child with a viral vaccine to protect him from smallpox. | ||
| 1830 | proteins are discovered. | ||
| 1833 | the first enzymes are isolated. | ||
| 1855 | the escherichia coli (e. coli) bacterium is discovered. it later becomes a major research, development and production tool for biotechnology. | ||
| 1863 | mendel, in his study of peas, discovers that traits are transmitted from parents to progeny by discrete, independent units, later called genes. his observations laid the groundwork for the field of genetics. | ||
| 1869 | miescher discovers dna in the sperm of trout. | ||
| 1877 | a technique for staining and identifying bacteria is developed by koch. | ||
| 1878 | the first centrifuge is developed by laval. | ||
| 1879 |
| ||
| 1900 | drosophila (fruit flies) used in early studies of genes. | ||
| 1902 | the term immunology first appears. | ||
| 1906 | the term genetics is introduced. --- | ||
| 1911 | the first cancer-causing virus is discovered by rous. | ||
| 1914 | bacteria are used to treat sewage for the first time in manchester, england. | ||
| 1915 | phages, or bacterial viruses, are discovered. | ||
| 1919 | the word biotechnology is first used by a hungarian agricultural engineer. --- | ||
| 1920 | the human growth hormone is discovered by evans and long. | ||
| 1928 | fleming discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic. --- | ||
| 1938 | the term molecular biology is coined. --- | ||
| 1940 | american oswald avery demonstrates that dna is the transforming factor and is the material of genes. | ||
| 1941 | the term genetic engineering is first used by danish microbiologist a. jost in a lecture on sexual reproduction in yeast at the technical institute in lwow, poland. | ||
| 1942 | the electron microscope is used to identify and characterize a bacteriophage - a virus that infects bacteria. | ||
| 1944 | waksman isolates streptomycin, an effective antibiotic for tb. | ||
| 1946 | discovery that genetic material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus, an example of genetic recombination. | ||
| 1947 | mcclintock discovers transposable elements, or jumping genes, in corn. | ||
| 1949 | pauling shows that sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease resulting from a mutation in the protein molecule hemoglobin. --- | ||
| 1950 | artificial insemination of livestock using frozen semen (a longtime dream of farmers) is successfully accomplished. | ||
| 1953 | nature publishes james watson’s and francis crick’s manuscript describing the double helical structure of dna, which marks the beginning of the modern era of genetics. | ||
| 1954 | cell-culturing techniques are developed. | ||
| 1955 | an enzyme involved in the synthesis of a nucleic acid is isolated for the first time. | ||
| 1956 | the fermentation process is perfected in japan. kornberg discovers the enzyme dna polymerase i, leading to an understanding of how dna is replicated. | ||
| 1958 | sickle cell anemia is shown to occur due to a change of a single amino acid. | ||
| 1959 | systemic fungicides are developed. the steps in protein biosynthesis are delineated. | ||
| also in the 1950s | |||
| discovery of interferons. first synthetic antibiotic. --- | |||
| 1960 | exploiting base pairing, hybrid dna-rna molecules are created. messenger rna is discovered. | ||
| 1964 | the international rice research institute in the philippines starts the green revolution with new strains of rice that double the yield of previous strains if given sufficient fertilizer. | ||
| 1965 | harris and watkins successfully fuse mouse and human cells. | ||
| 1966 | the genetic code is cracked, demonstrating that a sequence of three nucleotide bases (a condon) determines each of 20 amino acids. | ||
| 1967 | the first automatic protein sequencer is perfected. | ||
| 1969 | an enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first time. --- | ||
| 1970 | specific restriction nucleases are identified, opening the way for gene cloning. first complete synthesis of a gene. | ||
| 1971 | discovery of restriction enzymes that cut and splice genetic material. | ||
| 1972 | the dna composition of humans is discovered to be 99 percent similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas. --- | ||
| initial work with embryo transfer. | |||
| 1973 | stanley cohen and herbert boyer perfect genetic engineering techniques to cut and paste dna (using restriction enzymes and ligases) and reproduce the new dna in bacteria. | ||
| 1974 | the national institutes of health forms a recombinant dna advisory committee to oversee recombinant genetic research. | ||
| 1975 | asilomar conference (moratorium on genetic engineering research).--- | ||
| the first monoclonal antibodies are produced. | |||
| 1976 | the tools of recombinant dna are first applied to a human inherited disorder.--- | ||
| molecular hybridization is used for the prenatal diagnosis of alpha thalassemia. | |||
| yeast genes are expressed in e. coli bacteria.--- | |||
| dna sequencing discovered; first working synthetic gene. | |||
| 1977 | first expression of human gene in bacteria. --- | ||
| methods for reading dna sequence using electrophoresis are discovered. | |||
| 1978 | high-level structure of virus first identified. --- | ||
| recombinant human insulin first produced. --- | |||
| north carolina scientists show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a dna molecule. | |||
| 1979 | human growth hormone first synthesized. | ||
| also in the 1970s | |||
| first commercial company founded to develop genetically engineered products.--- | |||
| discovery of polymerases. --- | |||
| techniques for rapid sequencing of nucleotides perfected.--- | |||
| gene targeting. | |||
| rna splicing. | |||
| 1980 | the u.s. supreme court, in the landmark case diamond v. chakrabarty, approves the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms, which allows the exxon oil company to patent an oil-eating microorganism. | ||
| the u.s. patent for gene cloning is awarded to cohen and boyer. | |||
| the first gene-synthesizing machines are developed. | |||
| researchers successfully introduce a human gene - one that codes for the protein interferon - into a bacterium. | |||
| 1981 | scientists at ohio university produce the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice. | ||
| chinese scientist become the first to clone a fish - a golden carp. | |||
| 1982 | humulin® is approved for the treatment of diabetes. | ||
| applied biosystems, inc., introduces the first commercial gas phase protein sequencer, dramatically reducing the amount of protein sample needed for sequencing. | |||
| 1983 | the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) technique is conceived. pcr, which uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments, later becomes a major tool in biotech research and product development worldwide. | ||
| the first genetic transformation of plant cells by ti plasmids is performed. | |||
| the first artificial chromosome is synthesized. | |||
| the first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found. | |||
| 1984 | the dna fingerprinting technique is developed. | ||
| the first genetically engineered vaccine is developed. | |||
| the entire genome of the hiv virus is cloned and sequenced. | |||
| 1985 | genetic marking found for kidney disease and cystic fibrosis. | ||
| genetic fingerprinting enters the courtroom. | |||
| genetically engineered plants resistant to insects, viruses and bacteria are field tested for the first time. | |||
| the nih approves guidelines for performing experiments in gene therapy on humans. | |||
| protropin® is approved for the treatment of growth hormone deficiency in children. | |||
| 1986 | university of california, berkeley chemist describes how to combine antibodies and enzymes (abzymes) to create pharmaceuticals. | ||
| the first field tests of genetically engineered plants (tobacco) are conducted. | |||
| the environmental protection agency approves the release of the first genetically engineered crop - gene-altered tobacco plants. | |||
| albutein® is approved for treatment of hypovolmeic shock. | |||
| intron a® is approved for treatment of hairy cell leukemia. orthoclone okt3® is approved for the reversal of acute kidney transplant rejection. | |||
| recombinate® rahf, a blood-clotting factor viii for the treatment of hemophilia a, is approved. | |||
| 1987 | first field trials of a genetically altered bacterium. | ||
| frostban, a genetically altered bacterium that inhibits frost formation on crop plants, is field tested on strawberry and potato plants in california, the first authorized outdoor tests of an engineered bacterium. | |||
| activase® is approved for treatment of heart attacks. | |||
| infergen® is approved for treatment of hepatitis c. | |||
| recombivax-hb®, a hepatitis b vaccine for adolescents and high-risk infants, is approved. | |||
| 1988 | harvard molecular geneticists are awarded the first u.s. patent for a genetically altered animal - a transgenic mouse. | ||
| a patent for a process to make bleach-resistant protease enzymes to use in detergents is awarded. | |||
| congress funds the human genome project, a massive effort to map and sequence the human genetic code as well as the genomes of other species. | |||
| 1989 | first field trial of a recombinant viral crop protectant. | ||
| epogen® is approved for the treatment of renal disease anemia. | |||
| the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis is discovered. | |||
| alferon n® is approved for treatment of genital warts. | |||
| kogenate®, which replaces blood-clotting factor viii for the treatment of hemophilia a, is approved. | |||
| also in the 1980s | |||
| studies of dna used to determine evolutionary history. | |||
| recombinant dna animal vaccine approved for use in europe. | |||
| use of microbes in oil spill cleanup - bioremediation technology. | |||
| ribozymes and retinoblastomas identified. | |||
| 1990 | chy-max, an artificially produced form of chymosin, an enzyme for cheese-making is introduced. it is the first product of recombinant dna technology in the u.s. food supply. | ||
| human genome project - an international effort to map all of the genes in the human body - is launched. | |||
| the first federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a 4-year-old girl suffering from an immune disorder. | |||
| the first successful field trial of genetically engineered cotton plants is conducted. the plants had been engineered to withstand use of the herbicide bromoxynil. | |||
| the first transgenic dairy cow - used to produce human milk proteins for infant formula - is created. | |||
| actimmune® is approved for treatment of chronic granulomatous disease. | |||
| adagen® is approved for treatment of severe combined immunodeficiency disease (scid). | |||
| cytogam® is approved for the prevention of cytomegalovirus (cmv) in kidney transplant patients. | |||
| procrit® is approved for the treatment of anemia in azt-treated hiv-infected patients. | |||
| 1991 | neupogen® is approved for the treatment of low white blood cells in chemotherapy patients. | ||
| leukine®, used to replenish white blood cell counts after bone marrow transplants, is approved. | |||
| eredase® is approved for the treatment of type 1 gaucher’s disease. | |||
| 1992 | proleukin® is approved for the treatment of renal cell cancer. | ||
| american and british scientists unveil a technique for testing embryos in vitro for genetic abnormalities such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia. | |||
| 1993 | betaseron® is approved as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years. | ||
| the fda declares that genetically engineered foods are not inherently dangerous and do not require special regulation. | |||
| the biotechnology industry organization (bio) is created by merging two smaller trade associations. | |||
| pulmozyme® is approved for mild to moderate cystic fibrosis. | |||
| 1994 | the flavrsavr tomato - the first genetically engineered whole food approved by the fda is on the market. | ||
| the first breast cancer gene is discovered. | |||
| approval of genetically engineered version of human dnaase, which breaks down protein accumulation in the lungs of cf patients. | |||
| oncaspar® is approved for treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. reopro is approved to reduce acute blood-clot-related complications for high-risk angioplasty patients. | |||
| 1995 | the first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an aids patient. | ||
| the first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus is completed for the bacterium hemophilus influenzae. | |||
| gene therapy, immune system modulation and genetically engineered antibodies enter the clinics in the war against cancer. | |||
| abelcet® is approved for treatment of invasive fungal infections in patients who are refractory to or intolerant of conventional amphotericin b. | |||
| doxil® is approved as a second-line therapy for kaposi’s sarcoma in aids patients. | |||
| photofrin® is approved for palliative treatment of totally and partially obstructing cancers of the esophagus. | |||
| venoglobulin®-s is approved for the treatment of primary immunodeficiencies. | |||
| winrho sdf® is approved for the prevention of rh isoimmunization in pregnant women and for the treatment of thrombocytopenic purpurea (tp). | |||
| 1996 | the discovery of a gene associated with parkinson’s disease provides an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment. | ||
| alphanine® sd it approved to prevent and control bleeding in patients with factor ix deficiency due to hemophilia b. | |||
| amphotec® is approved as a second-line treatment of invasive aspergillosis infections. | |||
| daunoxome® is approved as a first-line treatment for hiv-related kaposi’s sarcoma. | |||
| fertinex is approved for treatment of female infertility to stimulate ovulation disorders and in women undergoing assisted reproductive technologies treatment. | |||
| retavase is approved for the management of acute myocardial infarction in adults. | |||
| respigam® is approved for the prevention of respiratory synctytial virus in children under 2 with bronchopulmonary dysplasia or history of prematurity. | |||
| serostim® is approved for cachexia (aids-wasting). | |||
| tripedia® is approved as a vaccine for infants 2, 4 and 6 months of age and first booster at 15-18 months; trihibit is approved for childhood immunization between 15 and 8 months for acellular pertussis, diphtheria, tetanus and hib disease. | |||
| vistide® is approved for the treatment of cytomegalovirus (cmv) retinitis in aids patients. | |||
| 1997 | scottish scientists report cloning a sheep, named dolly, using dna from adult sheep cells. | ||
| a group of oregon researchers claims to have cloned two rhesus monkeys. | |||
| a new dna technique combines pcr, dna chips and a computer program providing a new tool in the search for disease-causing genes. | |||
| abbott htlv-1/htlv-ii eia is approved for the detection of htlv-i/htlv-ii antibodies in serum or plasma. | |||
| ambisome® is approved for primary treatment for presumed fungal infections in patients with depressed immune function and fevers of unknown origin (fuo). | |||
| carticel is approved for treatment of knee cartilage damage. | |||
| follistim is approved as a recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone for treatment of infertility. | |||
| gonal-f is approved for functional infertility not due to primary ovarian failure. | |||
| neumega® is approved for the prevention of severe chemotherapy-induced thrombocytopenia in cancer patients. | |||
| prandin is approved as an anti-diabetic agent for treatment of type 2 diabetes. | |||
| regranex® gel is approved as a platelet-derived growth factor treatment of diabetic foot ulcers. | |||
| rituxan is approved for treatment of relapsed or refractory low-grade or follicular, cd20-positive b-cell non-hodgkin’s lymphoma. | |||
| 1998 | university of hawaii scientists clone three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian cumulus cells. | ||
| embryonic stem cells can be used to regenerate tissue and create disorders mimicking diseases. | |||
| scientists at japan’s kinki university clone eight identical calves using cells taken from a single adult cow | |||
| the first complete animal genome for the elegans worm is sequenced. | |||
| a rough draft of the human genome map is produced, showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes. | |||
| apligraf® is approved for treatment of venous leg ulcers. | |||
| enbrel® is approved for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. | |||
| herceptin® is approved for treatment of patients with metastatic breast cancer. | |||
| lymerix is approved for the prevention of lyme disease. | |||
| provigil® is approved to improve wakefulness in patients with excessive daytime sleepiness (eds) associated with narcolepsy. | |||
| rebetron® is approved as a combination therapy for treatment of chronic hepatitis c in patients with compensated liver disease who have relapsed following alpha-interferon treatment. | |||
| refludan® is approved for treatment of anticoagulation in patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and associated thromboembolic disease in order to prevent further thromboembolic complications. | |||
| remicade® is approved for short-term management of moderately to severely active crohn’s disease including those patients with fistula. | |||
| renagel® capsules are approved for the reduction of serum phosphorus in patients with end-stage renal disease. | |||
| synagis is approved for prevention of serious lower respiratory tract disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) in pediatric patients at high risk of rsv disease. | |||
| thyrogen® is approved as an adjunctive diagnostic tool for serum thyroglobulin (tg) testing with or without radioiodine imaging in the follow-up of patients with thyroid cancer. | |||
| vitravene is approved for the treatment of cytomegalovirus (cmv) retinitis in patients with aids. | |||
| integrilin is approved for treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome and angioplasty. | |||
| also in the 1990s | |||
| first conviction using genetic fingerprinting in the u.k. | |||
| isolation of gene that clearly participates in the normal process of regulating weight. | |||
| discovery that hereditary colon cancer is caused by defective dna repair gene. | |||
| genetically engineered rabies vaccine tested in raccoons. | |||
| genetically engineered biopesticide approved for sale in the usa. | |||
| patents issued for mice with specific transplanted genes. | |||
| first european patent issued for genetically engineered mouse sensitive to carcinogens. | |||
| breast cancer susceptibility genes cloned. | |||
21世纪的好消息坏消息
有科学家相信，到２０５０年，机器的能力将超过人类。另一些人则认为，到２０９９年将只有很少一部分人仍然保留着生物机体，大多数人将把自己的思想转换成电子电路，因而获得永生。
这个星球的科学家们，都投入了对未来的憧憬中，用他们超乎常人的眼光，预测２１世纪人类的前景。
他们认为在下个世纪的头５年中，人们将实现有史以来最重要的突破：破译人类基因组———即我们染色体组织中带有３０亿个碱基对代码的１０万种基因 ———破译人类染色体组有助于治疗和预防疾病。
科学家说，在下个世纪，我们将能够从根本上改变ＤＮＡ，在创造出新生命形式的同时把我们的幻想和虚荣心编成代码。我们的孩子也许能选择下一代的特征———选择他们的性别、眼睛的颜色，操纵他们的智商、个性和运动能力。他们也许能克隆自己、或者某一个子女、或者他们崇拜的某一位名人，甚至可能在我们死后克隆我们，自那头名为多利的克隆羊诞生以来，很少有人怀疑克隆人会在２０２５年之前诞生。那样一来，性器官与繁殖后代之间的联系将被打破。人们只需从自己的身体上切下一小部分，就能生长成一个新的个体———就像柳树那样。
根据乐观的估计，２０１５年，大多数癌症都将被攻克；２０１９年，４０００种遗传疾病有１０００多种能被治愈。今后１０年以内，医生们将能通过工具对许多早期癌症进行诊断。在某些情况下，他们能够在初期抑制一些细胞继续发展成癌细胞。在今后２５年内，将会出现能减轻大多数癌症症状的新药甚至治愈某些癌症。
有科学家相信，到２０５０年，机器的能力将超过人类。另一些人则认为，到２０９９年将只有很少一部分人仍然保留着生物机体，大多数人将把自己的思想转换成电子电路，因而获得永生。
社会学家则从另外的角度来展望未来。
比如说，在新世纪，人类还会需要性吗？
是的，在２０２５年以前，人们仍需要它。但是人们对性的依赖程度将大为降低。性生活因其给人们带来的乐趣而让人无法放弃，但它的价值更偏向娱乐，而不是生殖方面。
在人们的印象中，一旦脊椎受伤就意味着终生瘫痪，而随着医学的发展，瘫痪病人将重新站立起来。
多少世纪以来，医生们都认为脊髓受损是无法治愈的。位于伤口组织的阻碍再生蛋白质阻碍了其它蛋白质的生长，从而造成伤口无法被治愈。科研人员经过多年研究正在取得突破，相关的人体试验已经在进行之中。
人老了以后，总要丧失许多原先拥有的功能，难道我们真的必须如此悲哀地变老吗？我们必须以丧失许多生活乐趣为代价去换取生命的延长吗？过去的人们主要考虑的是，我能活到老吗？让我再活长一点吧！而如今人们的平均寿命已经有了显著的提高。下个世纪，新的生物学发现将确保我们活到很大的岁数而且还能让我们展开“疯狂”的想像：我们可能根本不会变老。
美国加州技术学院的本泽和他的学生首次发现了“时钟基因”，该基因控制着每一个活细胞的生命时钟进程。最近他发现一种发生基因突变的果蝇的寿命比其它果蝇长三分之一，而这种差异仅仅是由一条单独的基因造成，本泽称它为玛士撒拉（Ｍｅｔｈｕｓｅｌａｈ，《圣经·创世记》中人物，据传享年９６５岁）。既然果蝇的寿命能通过一条基因来延长，那我们也可以大胆地预言，下个世纪，科学家们将找到调整人类生命时钟的方法。
一直以来，肉不但作为食物也作为一种对胜利者的犒赏。但在新的世纪中，人们的想法将会改变，就像人们已经意识到香烟使整个经济及社会付出的代价一样。人们逐渐认识到，随着人口的增长，需要生产大量的猪、牛、羊、禽、鱼等动物以满足人们的需要，而这些动物则耗费着大量的资源，包括淡水和土地。它们还产生大量粪便污染，增加心脏病等疾病的发病率并破坏大量森林———地球生命赖以生存的地方。
反对的人很可能会说，直接食用谷物无法为我们提供肉类所具有的那种蛋白质，没错。但营养学家们将会证明，大多数富有國家的人们完全没有必要所摄入这么大量的肉类食物，而且许多蔬菜都能够提供人体所需的蛋白质。
他们并不是在预言人类将不再吃肉，而是说，在下个世纪，人类可能将结束那种无节制地生产大量肉类，从而使人类及环境深受其害的时代。
地球上大多数人口倾倒垃圾的行动才刚刚开始，他们正在沿着美国及其他发达國家的足迹越陷越深。解决中国的污染问题也已经到了刻不容缓的地步。
有人大胆地预言，通过神奇的回收技术及现代炼金术，未来世界将不再有垃圾。
生物科技正在给予我们新的垃圾处理手段。人们已经发现一些微生物可以将被污染的土壤或污泥中的有害的物质转化为无害的副产品。此外，人们还在开发更容易被重复利用的材料。比如，一种新型的“泡沫玻璃”很可能会取代当今建筑上所广泛采用的水泥的地位。这种玻璃异常坚固而且份量很轻，它是由沙子制成，打破后又可回归到沙子中去。
当然，以上这些方法都有其局限性，要想消除垃圾还需要一种全新的生产工艺。
此外，随着互联网的普及，还可能会出现“垃圾中间人”，其原理就是：一个人的垃圾是另一个人的财宝。如果全世界的人都认同这个观点，也许真的会有一天，垃圾会从我们这个世界上消失。
